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These help trap and propel bacteria and pollutants outward

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2019;11:S212940

In the UK, direct costs of smoking arise from GP consultations, prescriptions for drugs, and various costs related to treating diseases attributable to smoking.7 Direct costs could also include the resources used up by other agencies and charitable organizations.9 The World Bank estimates that about 15% of the aggregate health care expenditure in high-income countries can be attributed to smoking.10,11 In the UK, the direct costs of smoking to the NHS have been estimated at between 2.7 billion and 5.2 billion, which is equivalent to around 5% of the total NHS budget each year.3,7,8,1214 Smoking also poses considerable indirect costs to society and the nonsmoking public, eg, costs of second-hand smoking, costs to employers in the form of loss of productivity and absenteeism of smokers owing to smoking-related illnesses.15 In addition, smoking-induced fires, sickness/invalidity benefits, litter, etc are all negative externalities of smoking to society